Korrosion und galvanische Ströme im Mund
7.1.2002
Zu den Suchbegriffen "igalvanic currents dental alloys" findet U.S. National Library of Medicine Gateway Search (http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd) 22 Quellen.
Aribert Deckers
Journal Citations
1
PUBMED_ID : 10915898
Corrosion by galvanic coupling between carbon fiber posts and different alloys.
Fovet Y, Pourreyron L, Gal JY.
Dent Mater. 2000
Sep;16(5):364-73.
[Article in English]
Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique, Universite des Sciences et Techniques, Montpellier, France. yfovet@univ-montp2.fr
OBJECTIVES: The corrosion of metal type (NiCr, copper, etc.) posts in post and core restorations has been a well known fact over the last few years. A new generation of carbon fiber posts is now playing an extensive role in dental prosthetics, but these posts may, in some cases come in contact with alloys used for restoration purposes. The objective of this paper is to study the electrochemical behaviour of these posts in an artificial SAGF medium (Artificial Saliva Gal Fovet) for comparison with that observed for different alloys (gold, NiCr and amalgams) in the same medium, and to assess the coupling that might occur between these posts and alloys.
METHODS: Posts of different diameters (1-2.1 mm) were molded in resin, thus forming 10 x 3 mm pads that were mounted on a rotating electrode. Pads of identical dimensions were also made for each alloy. Voltammograms (current-tension curves) were plotted for every material in the SAGF medium at 25 degrees C with normal aeration and low aeration (bubbling purified argon) using a potentiometer with three electrodes to determine the position of the zero current potentials. Evans graphs were then plotted once the anode part of the alloy curves and the cathode part of the post curves had been processed with computer software. The potentials and the maximum coupling current densities were estimated.
RESULTS: Posts may be involved in galvanic coupling in the presence of oxygen. Galvanic activity in an aerated solution is highly probable upon contact with amalgams, but may also occur if the material in contact is NiCr alloy. Coupling between precious alloys and posts is improbable and can only induce very low currents in the presence of oxygen.
SIGNIFICANCE: This study devoted to coupling of carbon fiber posts and metals in the mouth, attracts attention to the fact that a corrosion reaction can be set-up in the infiltration conditions relevant to the prosthetic restoration.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
2
PUBMED_ID ; 10863427"
Galvanic interaction between titanium and gallium alloy or dental amalgam.
Horasawa N, Takahashi S, Marek M.
Dent Mater. 1999 Sep;15(5):318-22.
[Article in English]
Matsumoto Dental College, Nagano, Japan.
OBJECTIVES: The objective was to examine in vitro the galvanic interaction between titanium and a high-copper dental amalgam or a gallium-based direct filling alloy at different area ratios, and to relate the observed interactions to the electrochemical characteristics of the alloys.
METHODS: The tested materials were cast titanium, a single-composition, spherical high-copper amalgam, and a gallium-based direct filling alloy. Polarization curves were recorded. The galvanic couples were prepared at Ti/filling alloy ratios of 1:1, 2:1, 4:1 and 6:1. The couples were exposed to synthetic saliva at 37 degrees C and the galvanic currents and potentials were measured as a function of time. The results were analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey tests (p < or = 0.05).
RESULTS: Freshly abraded titanium initially was anodic to both the amalgam and the gallium alloy, but the polarity reversed after a period of exposure. The galvanic potential and current density increased with the increasing Ti/alloy area ratio. The potential increase was smaller and the current increase larger for the Ga alloy than for the amalgam. The difference was consistent with the polarization characteristics. The galvanic current density was of the order of 10(-8) A/cm2 for the Ti/amalgam couple, and 10(-7) to 10(-6) A/cm2 for the Ti/gallium alloy couple.
SIGNIFICANCE: The results show that the galvanic interaction between titanium and direct filling alloys is small. High copper dental amalgams should suffer little galvanic corrosion when in contact with Ti. For gallium direct filling alloys, the galvanic interaction may be more detrimental because of the inherently lower corrosion resistance.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
3
PUBMED_ID : 9678854
Effects of fluorides on titanium and other dental alloys in dentistry.
Reclaru L, Meyer JM.
Biomaterials. 1998 Jan-Feb;19(1-3):85-92.
[Article in English]
P.X. Holding, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland. pxholding@access.ch
Fluoride ions are the only aggressive ions for the protective oxide layer of titanium and titanium alloys. Thus their presence may possibly start a localized corrosive degradation by pitting and crevice corrosion processes. Since hygiene products like toothpastes and prophylactic gels contain fluoride ions, the present study has been completed to evaluate the effect of fluoride ions on titanium and dental alloys used, for example, as dental implants and superstructures. Two different milieu based on the Fusayama artificial saliva and an electrolyte solution containing NaCl, with and without fluoride ions, have been used for the electrochemical tests, in a pH range of 6.15 to 3.0. Open circuit potentials, potentiodynamic curves, Tafel slopes, galvanic couplings and crevice potentials are the electrochemical procedures selected for this work. Based on the experimental results obtained with these procedures, the mixed potential theory was applied to predict couple potentials and couple currents. It has thus been shown that: (a) with and without fluoride ions, galvanic currents are weak (10E - 7 to 10E - 8 A cm(-2)) within a pH range of 6.15 to 3.5; (b) titanium submitted to anodic polarization in an electrolyte, even one containing fluoride, merely develops an oxide layer and does not corrode within that same pH range of 6.15 to 3.5; (c) in confined areas where fluoride ions are present, titanium and the dental alloys tested undergo as corrosive process, in the form of crevice and pitting, as soon as the pH drops below 3.5.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
4
PUBMED_ID : 8957826
Oral electricity.
Certosimo AJ, O'Connor RP.
Gen Dent. 1996 Jul-Aug;44(4):324-6.
[Article in English]
National Naval Dental Center, Naval Dental School, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
"Oral electricity," "electrogalvanism," or "galvanic currents" has long been recognized as a potential source of oral pain and discomfort. This phenomenon of oral galvanism results from the difference in electrical potential between dissimilar restorative metals located in the mouth. In this case report, the literature is reviewed, and an interesting case study'is presented. The patient's clinical presentation, and the duration and constancy of the oral symptoms, pose diagnostic challenges. A simple, yet effective treatment regimen is proposed.
Publication Types:
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
5
PUBMED_ID : 8831065
Galvanic corrosion and cytotoxic effects of amalgam and gallium alloys coupled to titanium.
Bumgardner JD, Johansson BI.
Eur J Oral Sci. 1996 Jun;104(3):300-8.
[Article in English]
Department of Dental Materials Science, Umea University, Sweden. jbumgard@abe.msstate.edu
The aim of this study was to examine and compare the galvanic corrosion of a conventional, a dispersed high-copper, and a palladium-enriched spherical high-copper amalgam and a gallium alloy coupled to titanium in saline and cell culture solutions, and to evaluate the effects of the couples on cultured cells. The potentials and charge transfers between amalgams and titanium were measured by electrochemical corrosion methods. Cytotoxicity of the couples, as indicated by the uptake of neutral red vital stain, was determined in 24-h direct contact human gingival fibroblast cell cultures. Results of this study indicated that before connecting the high-copper amalgams to titanium, the amalgams exhibited more positive potentials which resulted in initial negative charge transfers, i.e. corrosion of titanium. However, this initial corrosion appeared to cause titanium to passivate, and a shift in galvanic currents to positive charge transfers, i.e. corrosion of the amalgam samples. Lower galvanic currents were measured for the amalgam-titanium couples as compared to the gallium alloy-titanium couple. Coupling the conventional or the palladium-enriched high-copper amalgams to titanium did not significantly affect the uptake of neutral red as compared to cells not exposed to any test alloy. However, significant cytotoxic effects were observed when the dispersed-type high-copper amalgam and the gallium alloy were coupled to titanium. Even though the corrosion currents measured for these couples were less than gold alloys coupled to amalgam, these results suggest there is the potential for released galvanic corrosion products to become cytotoxic. These data warrant further investigations into the effects of coupling amalgam and gallium alloys to titanium in the oral environment.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
6
PUBMED_ID : 8940574
Clinical management of galvanic current between gold and amalgam.
Williamson R.
Gen Dent. 1996 Jan-Feb;44(1):70-3.
[Article in English]
Department of Oral Health Practice, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry, Lexington, USA.
Placing a strip of rubber dam or similar insulator between the contacting dissimilar restorations is a diagnostic technique for relieving and evaluating painful galvanic currents. Treatment modalities vary according to severity of pain. In cases of little or no pain, nothing is done, and corrosion products are allowed to form an insulating cover over the offending restoration. For patients with severe pain that does not improve, treatment may consist of placing a composite restoration in the amalgam restoration to break the interproximal dissimilar-metal contact. For painful currents caused by occluding restorations, a coating of unfilled light-cured resin over the offending amalgam breaks the metal contact and allows corrosion product buildup. Galvanic currents can occur and cause pain, but this is generally shortlived and should not influence the dentist's choice of an appropriate restorative material.
Publication Types:
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
7
PUBMED_ID : 8595831
Effect of mercury on corrosion of eta' Cu-Sn phase in dental amalgams.
Ogletree RH, Marek M.
Dent Mater. 1995 Sep;11(5):332-6.
[Article in English]
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
OBJECTIVES: The eta' Cu-Sn phase is the most corrosion-susceptible major component of the microstructure in high-copper dental amalgams, even though metallurgically prepared specimens of the phase are corrosion-resistant. The purpose of this study was to determine if mercury is the cause of the degradation.
METHODS: Specimens of metallurgically prepared eta' Cu-Sn phase were tested in synthetic saliva using electrochemical methods. Mercury was adsorbed on the surface by exposure to mercury vapor, and the changes in the corrosion potential and anodic polarization characteristics were determined. Galvanic currents between eta' specimens and a high-copper dental amalgam were measured for both Hg-free and Hg-contaminated eta' electrodes.
RESULTS: The Hg-free eta' phase showed a wide region of passivity. Exposure to mercury made the eta' phase electrochemically more active, and current peaks appeared on the polarization curves. The Hg-free eta' electrode was a cathode to a high-copper dental amalgam. The Hg-contaminated eta' electrode started also as a cathode, but became anode after a period of exposure.
SIGNIFICANCE: It was concluded that mercury destabilizes the protective passive film on the eta' phase, making the phase more susceptible to corrosion in the oral environment. The results of the galvanic current measurements seem to indicate that the galvanic interaction between eta' and the other phases facilitates the mercury-related degradation.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
Grant Support:
8
PUBMED_ID : 8027459
Study of corrosion between a titanium implant and dental alloys.
Reclaru L, Meyer JM.
J Dent. 1994 Jun;22(3):159-68.
[Article in English]
Metaux Precieux SA, Neuchatel, Switzerland.
The infiltration of saliva into the multi-metallic structures on titanium implants brings different types of alloys into temporary or permanent contact. In this way a galvanic cell is established as a result of their potential difference. The galvanic cell phenomenon is compounded by another type of corrosion resulting from the geometry of the assembly: localized crevice corrosion. Fifteen galvanic couples (Ti/gold-based alloys, Ti/palladium-based alloy and Ti/non-precious alloys) were studied. Various electrochemical parameters (Ecorr, Ecommon, Ecouple corr, Ecrevice, icorr, icouple corr and Tafel slopes) were analysed. The galvanic currents measured are of the same order of magnitude (except Ti/stainless steel). They remain low. Application of the mixed-potential theory shows that titanium in coupling with the alloys studied will be under either cathodic or anodic control. According to the results obtained, an alloy that is potentially usable for superstructures in a galvanic coupling with titanium must fulfil a certain number of parameters: in a coupling, titanium must have a weak anodic polarization; the current generated by the galvanic cell must also be weak; the crevice potential must be markedly higher than the common potential.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
9
PUBMED_ID : 1412553
[The compatibility of dentures made from precious
metals and from corrosion-resistant steels with nitride
coatings].
[The compatibility of dentures made from precious
metals and from corrosion-resistant steels with nitride
coatings]
Panchova VP, Kotliar AM, Savidova
EK, Steglik TV, Zhivkova LV, Tarasov IuA.
Stomatologiia (Mosk). 1992 Mar-Apr;(2):67-9.
[Article in Russian]
Measurements of electrode potentials of individual half-cells and galvanic currents between dentures made of gold, silver-palladium alloys, and stainless steel with titanium nitride coating, carried out in conditions of mechanic activation, have revealed that these parameters did not surpass the values characteristic of homogeneous elements. Therefore the aforesaid alloys are fairly well compatible in the oral cavity and may be combined in denture making.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
10
PUBMED_ID : 1817869
[Corrosion behavior of dental alloys coated with
titanium niobium oxinitride].
[Corrosion behavior of dental alloys coated with
titanium niobium oxinitride]
Thull R.
Dtsch Zahnarztl Z. 1991 Nov;46(11):712-7.
[Article in German]
Universitatsklinik und Polikliniken fur Zahn-, Mund- und Kieferkrankheiten, Universitat Wurzburg.
Dental alloys coated with (Ti,Nb)ON using the ion are PVD technique exhibit galvanic corrosion current densities of considerably less than Jg = 1 microA/cm2. These measurements were taken on plane surfaces. The results show no signs of local corrosion, which might impair the long-term intraoral stability of dental constructions or the health of the patients. Irrespective of the dental alloys used, the coatings exhibit pores extending down to the alloy. The alloy thus wetted on the one hand, and the coated areas on the other, act as galvanic elements with high source resistances and very low short circuit currents. It may therefore be concluded that the coating will effectively reduce allergic reactions to the components of the dental alloys.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
11
PUBMED_ID : 1673131
Influence of corrosion on brazed joints' strength.
Angelini E, Pezzoli M, Rosalbino
F, Zucchi F.
J Dent. 1991 Feb;19(1):56-61.
[Article in English]
Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica, Politecnico di Torino, Italy.
The influence of corrosion on the bond strength of different brazed joints commonly used in dentistry has been investigated by means of accelerated immersion tests in artificial saliva buffered at pH 2, and in Ringer's solution, both kept at 37 degrees C. Two Co-Cr base metal alloys were brazed with a gold and a non-precious alloy. After 60 days' immersion the tensile strength of the samples brazed with the gold alloy was dramatically reduced because of galvanic corrosion phenomena. The bond strength of the specimens brazed with the non-precious alloy was largely unaffected. Corrosion products rich in nickel were detected. The electrochemical characterization of the base metal alloys and brazing materials was performed by means of polarization curves in the two media investigated. High short circuit currents were only produced with the gold brazing materials.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
12
PUBMED_ID : 3468604
An in vitro study of galvanic currents between amalgam and gold alloy electrodes in saliva and in saline solutions.
Johansson BI.
Scand J Dent Res. 1986 Dec;94(6):562-8.
[Article in English]
The galvanic currents between amalgam and gold alloy electrodes were higher in saline solutions than in saliva. Conventional amalgam supported higher currents than high copper amalgams when short-circuited with a gold alloy. The galvanic currents were not affected or affected only to a very small degree when whole saliva from different persons were compared. Higher currents were recorded when short-circuiting conventional amalgam and gold alloy electrodes using parotid saliva than when using whole saliva collected from one person. However, removing molecules with a molecular weight higher than 10(4) from whole and parotid saliva did not seem to affect the galvanic currents.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
13
PUBMED_ID : 3458892
An examination of the surface corrosion state of dental fillings and constructions. I. A laboratory investigation of the corrosion behaviour of dental alloys in natural saliva and saline solutions.
Hakansson B, Yontchev E, Vannerberg
NG, Hedegard B.
J Oral Rehabil. 1986 May;13(3):235-46.
[Article in English]
Electrochemical measurements on amalgams and gold alloys in natural saliva and saline solutions have been performed. The results show strong inhibiting effects of some components in natural saliva on the surface corrosion behaviour of amalgams. For the gold alloys the cathodic reduction of oxygen was notably lower in natural saliva than in saline solutions. For galvanic combinations of gold and amalgams substantially lower currents than those calculated from thermodynamic data can be expected in natural saliva.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
14
PUBMED_ID : 3457767
Corrosion in the oral cavity--potential local and systemic effects.
Bergman M.
Int Dent J. 1986 Mar;36(1):41-4.
[Article in English]
The main current-generating corrosion cells in the oral cavity are the bimetallic cell and the concentration cell, the latter mainly occurring due to differences in access to oxygen in the various parts of the metallic material. Corrosion resistance is not an intrinsic property of a metal or an alloy for it depends on an interaction with the environment. Thus, the contents of the oral cavity, have a decisive influence. This implies that corrosion tests in vitro are of limited value in predicting the clinical corrosion behaviour of a metallic material. Results from a series of clinical studies concerning a possible relationship between galvanic currents and certain oral and other symptoms in a group of patients who had been referred to the Faculty of Odontology, University of Umea, are briefly presented. The possibility of local and systemic effects of intra-oral galvanic cells is discussed.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
15
PUBMED_ID : 3474874
[Galvanic currents and oral pathologic changes and
symptoms in the mouth].
[Galvanic currents and oral pathologic changes and
symptoms in the mouth]
Kraljevic K, Cekic-Arambasin A, Grabarevic S.
Acta Stomatol Croat. 1986;20 Suppl:67-74.
[Article in Serbo-Croatian (Roman)]
No Abstract Available.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
16
PUBMED_ID : 3467439
Studies of individuals with orofacial discomfort complaints. An investigation of a group of patients who related their sufferings to effects of dental materials and constructions.
Yontchev EA.
Swed Dent J Suppl. 1986;38:1-45.
[Article in English]
This thesis is based on seven studies. The aims of these studies were to investigate a series of consecutive patients with orofacial and general sensations and complaints of discomfort, which the patients assumed to be caused by galvanic currents created by metallic dental fillings and restorations, as well as contact allergy to both metallic and non-metallic substances in dental materials. Studies I and II described the patients' symptoms and complaints, as well as the clinical findings of many odontological and medical examinations. A widely varying symptom panorama and numerous clinical findings, both oral and general, have been found which could not be explained by a single etiological factor. A combination of many factors, such as general health problems, side effects of medication, psychosocial problems, including stressful life events and complications due to the chronicity of the pain formed the background to the oral and general complaints of these patients. The salivary and microbiological conditions and patch test results were presented in studies III and IV. The saliva flow rate, pH and cariogenic bacteria level as well as contact allergy to metallic and non-metallic substances known as allergens, were not significantly different, but buffer capacity and saliva conductance did differ. A laboratory investigation of the corrosion behaviour of dental amalgams and gold alloys in natural saliva and saline solutions was performed (Study V) and the corrosion state of dental amalgam fillings and constructions was examined (Study VI). Special laboratory and clinical methods and apparatus were constructed and used. No differences between electrode potentials of the amalgam fillings and constructions in patients with and without orofacial discomfort complaints were measured. Study VII presented an analysis of the outcome of the treatments applied. The treatment was based on each patient's symptoms and signs and probable diagnosis. Besides conventional dental, stomatognathic and medical treatment, metallic constructions were removed in 54% of the patients. The initial treatment result was favourable in 80% but recurrences were frequent. It was concluded that these patients need a careful oral examination and dental treatment of observed local pathosis and defects of dental constructions, but removal of metallic fillings and constructions should be avoided when not indicated. Many of these patients require medical consultation and treatment, and collaboration between dentist and the physician is recommended.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
17
PUBMED_ID : 3864220
Galvanic currents between dental alloys in vitro.
Arvidson K, Johansson EG.
Scand J Dent Res. 1985 Oct;93(5):467-73.
[Article in English]
The galvanic current densities between gold, amalgam and cobalt-chromium, three different classes of dental alloys, were determined in vitro in artificial saliva kept at 35 degrees C. The maximum current density of 200 microA/dm2 was obtained between the conventional amalgam and a type III gold alloy. Galvanic currents of lesser magnitude could also be measured between amalgams high in copper and the other alloys. No measurable current densities were obtained between gold alloys and between gold and cobalt-chromium alloy with the exception of a casting and a solder gold alloy commonly used in combination.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
18
PUBMED_ID : 6758103
Potentials of and currents between dental metallic restorations.
Bergman M, Ginstrup O, Nilsson B.
Scand J Dent Res. 1982 Oct;90(5):404-8.
[Article in English]
115 persons were studied from a body of patients referred to the Faculty of Odontology, University of Umea, for investigation regarding any occurrence of oral galvanism. Potential and polarization of metallic restorations and dentures were recorded using a method and equipment previously described. Data regarding distribution of potential ranges with respect to number of patients and type of alloy are presented. The distribution of calculated intraoral currents in relation to number and type of metallic contacts is stated. Relevant parameters for the study of oral galvanic (bimetallic) cells are discussed.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
19
PUBMED_ID : 6937096
Galvanic cells including cobalt-chromium alloys.
Gjerdet NR.
Acta Odontol Scand. 1980;38(5):273-8.
[Article in English]
Galvanic cells may be created when dentures made of cobalt-chromium alloys are placed on teeth with metallic restorations. The power of such cells was evaluated in an in vitro galvanic using amalgams, gold alloy, and nickel-chromium alloys. The amalgams and one of the nickel-chromium alloys revealed high corrosion currents when placed in contact with cobalt-chromium alloy, the conventional amalgam showing the highest values. The gold alloy and another nickel-chromium alloy exhibited low corrosion currents and they were noble with respect to cobalt-chromium.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
20
PUBMED_ID : 429383
In vitro corrosion of Ti-6Al-4V and type 316L stainless steel when galvanically coupled with carbon.
Thompson NG, Buchanan RA, Lemons JE.
J Biomed Mater Res. 1979 Jan;13(1):35-44.
[Article in English]
In vitro corrosion experiments were conducted employing potentiostatic polarization techniques, a saline environment and candidate biomaterial alloy/carbon combinations. Corrosion currents and potentials of carbon/metal couples were predicted by mixed-potential theory utilizing the polarization curves generated. The alloys examined were annealed ELI grade Ti-6A1-4V and cold-worked 316L stainless steel while the types of carbon examined were LTI pyrolytic carbon and vapor-deposited carbon. It was determined that galvanic couples of carbon to cold-worked 316L stainless steel with carbon/metal area ratios of 10:1 to 100:1 produced coupled corrosion potentials in the range of the observed breakdown potential of the stainless steel. It was therefore predicted that localized corrosion in the form of pitting could occur on the cold-worked stainless steel when coupled to carbon with area ratios of 10:1 or greater. The titanium alloy did not exhibit a breakdown potential up to a potential of 1.2 V. Therefore, accelerated corrosion was not predicted for the titanium alloy to carbon galvanic couples under these experimental conditions. Direct carbon/alloy coupling experiments were conducted to verify the corrosion currents and potentials predicted from mixed-potential theory and polarization curve analysis. The experimental and theoretical values showed good agreement.
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
21
PUBMED_ID : 4507205
Gold-amalgam galvanic cells. The measurement of corrosion currents.
Von Fraunhofer JA, Staheli PJ.
Br Dent J. 1972 May 2;132(9):357-62.
[Article in English]
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
22
PUBMED_ID : 4873347
[Contributions to the study of intrabuccal galvanic currents]
Chiru-Mocanu M, Teodorescu T, Butureanu
E, Ciubotaru S.
Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 1967 Oct-Dec;71(4):909-14.
[Article in Romanian]
MeSH Terms:
Substances:
Wenn Sie mehr suchen wollen: NIH, HHS und andere Organisationen helfen Ihnen gerne.
http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd U.S. National Library of Medicine Gateway Search http://www.nlm.nih.gov U.S. National Library of Medicine http://www.nih.gov/ National Institutes of Health http://www.os.dhhs.gov/ Department of Health and Human Services http://www.nlm.nih.gov/loansomedoc/loansome_home.html Order Documents Home http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html Clinical Alerts http://clinicaltrials.gov/ ClinicalTrials.gov Home http://text.nlm.nih.gov/ HSTAT (Health Services/Technology Assessment Text) Home http://igm.nlm.nih.gov/ Internet Grateful Med Home http://www.locatorplus.gov LOCATORplus Home http://medlineplus.gov/ MEDLINEplus Home http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi PubMed Home http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ TOXNET (Toxicology Data Network) Home http://www.nih.gov/icd/od/foia/index.htm Freedom of Information Act http://www.nlm.nih.gov/disclaimer.html Disclaimers
Jegliche Weiterverwendung der Texte der Amalgam-Page ist verboten.
Verlage dürfen sich wegen der Nachdruckrechte per Email an mich wenden.
Aribert Deckers